With the development and utilization of marine resources, more than 50% of fishery products, including bones, fins, heads, and internal organs, which are discarded as waste annually, can be used. In recent years, calcium supplements from marine sources have gained attention due to their abundant reserves, high safety, and biological activity 16, 17. Animal bones may carry the risk of prion transmission 14, 15. However, natural calcium carbonate ores may contain harmful elements, such as heavy metals 13. The calcium sources for these supplements include calcium carbonate ores, calcium-rich animal skeletons, marine shells, and crustaceans 12. As a result, more people have increased their calcium intake through supplements based on the advice of doctors or the media 11. An increasing number of people continue to face calcium deficiency and diseases associated with calcium deficiency 8, 9, 10. Chronic calcium deficiency has caused osteoporosis to become an epidemic 7. Calcium deficiency becomes gradually debilitating with age 6. In America, a study found that approximately 38% of adults who rely solely on food for mineral and vitamin intake consume inadequate levels of calcium, and approximately 93% consume inadequate levels of vitamin D, which plays a key role in calcium absorption rate, bone homeostasis, and bone repair 4, 5. For example, the presence of phytic acid in cereals and oxalic acid in green leafy vegetables can cause calcium to precipitate as calcium phytate and calcium oxalate, which are insoluble compounds 3.
However, an inappropriate diet can decrease the bioavailability of calcium. The primary source of calcium is dairy products, including milk and its by-products like cheese and condensed milk, followed by other sources like cereals and tofu 2. Calcium enters the circulation through food or calcium supplements, and a dynamic balance is maintained between blood and bone calcium 1. Calcium deficiency can cause conditions like osteoporosis, rickets, epilepsy, and anemia. Calcium is an important micronutrient widely believed to affect bone health and human metabolism.
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